T.S. Eliot Analysis

Few men have had as much power through the written word as Thomas Stearns Eliot, more commonly known by his initials, T.S. Eliot.  His writing and poetry were powerful examples of his blunt and unique aesthetic as well as his intensely intellectual approach to structure.  Throughout all of his work, though it is a relatively small amount for a poet of his literary stature, he displays a keen eye for the condition of man and culture.  He looks critically on the world and social institutions, expressing frustration over the failure of the individual.  While this focus and strength of his writing does not change during the course of his career, his conclusions and the tone of his poems change.  This alteration can be attributed to his conversion and his subsequently modified worldview.  It can be seen through both the tenor of his poems as well as in the structure itself.

One early example of Eliot’s pre-conversion writing, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” is an exploration of the mind of a neurotic, indecisive, over thinking individual.  From the very beginning, the epigraph establishes a morbid tone, in essence swearing the reader to secrecy.  What the speaker is about to reveal through the poem should never be uttered to anyone else.  Then, he continues, describing a cityscape, placing emphasis on the “yellow fog” and “yellow smoke” that pervades the streets.  He looks at his life as a monotonous cycle, time passing with more to come, and he questions whether he has already experienced everything in life.  Filling this time are moments upon moments of indecision, continual doubting resulting in a paralysis of action.  Still, the repetition of certain lines, “In the room the women come and go/Talking of Michelangelo.” stresses the continuation of time despite his inaction.  The metaphor of the crab, the “ragged claws,” is a perfect parallel for his life; both can only travel sideways, never making forward progress.  Stylistically, the fragmentation of the poem serves to re-enforce the incongruity of thought that the words demonstrate.  The poem as a whole is a type of dramatic monologue, and the speaker is continually questioning himself.  He inquires whether he has the strength to take action, and anticipates his attempts failing to meet his desires.  In the end, his conclusion is one of surrender to what he sees as the inevitable.  He was not meant for high things, “No! I am not Prince Hamlet, not was meant to be; /Am an attendant lord, one that will do” and because of this he busies himself deciding what sort of insignificance he shall pursue.  This pointless endeavor carries him until he is old, but he will still not pursue any more.  The only realization that he achieves is that his life is like a sleep that has lasted too long and that he will finally “awake” to death.

“The Hollow Men” is another pre-conversion poem, and an equally good example of Eliot’s pessimism regarding mankind.  He uses that poem as cynical and harsh appraisal of empty men.  The terms “hollow men” and “stuffed men” with “Headpieces filled with straw.” bluntly revile the subject of the poem.  Eliot’s inclusion of a series of paradoxical statements, each of which describe a form without substance, also emphasizes the void nature of the hollow men.  This poem also incorporates the religious, by viewing the hollow men from “death’s other Kingdom,” apparently a reference to Heaven.  However, the next reference seems to be an anti-Lord’s Prayer, “Let me be no nearer/ In death’s dream kingdom” which seems to blasphemously invert the line, “Thy Kingdom come.”  Eliot offers a glimpse of the Christian hope, but in the end he discards the idea as “The hope only/ Of empty men.” and instead offers the inane repetition of an altered nursery rhyme as a parallel to life.  Then he uses a trio of illustrations, all of which use couplets of very similar concepts, and places the “Shadow” in between all of them, putting the essence of evil in everything.  There are also the three lines aligned with the right margin, again seeming very liturgical, which are truncated to become the second-to-last stanza.  Then for a final thrust at the emptiness of these men and of life, Eliot concludes the poem with another nursery rhyme like stanza that pronounces that the end of the life of the hollow men without ado, only with a whimper.

An example of post-conversion writing is the Four Quartets, from which the poem “Little Gidding” is taken.  It clearly shows Eliot’s renewal through the optimistic outlook that stretches beyond the physical and visible world as well as through the positive resolution in the last section.  The poem is named after an Anglican monastery; the first section offers a description of a trip to the monastery where “prayer has been valid” as well as a depiction of prayer as the fiery language of the realm beyond the living.  This acknowledgement of existence and hope after death is a dramatic change in Eliot’s perspective.  The actual structure also relates a change; the language used is almost conversational in structure, a striking departure from the fragmented rambling of his pre-conversion writings.  In the second section, the speaker encounters a spectral version of himself who informs him that he must suffer the purifying fire if he wants to escape the curses of life.  This image of a purifying fire is drawn almost directly from Biblical passages (e.g. 1 Cor. 3:13), another indication of the influence that the Christian belief had on Eliot.  The image of fire returns in the fourth section where Eliot presents the difficult position of having to choose between two pyres, one of which represents the fire of hell and the other the purifying fire of love.  Continuing, the final section brings a resolution to the poem, speaking of a condition of complete simplicity that costs everything and uniting the images of the fire, representing cleansing, and of the rose, symbolizing mercy.  This description is a precise and powerful allegory for the salvation that God offers through faith in His redeeming work.

Both the pre- and post-conversion poems exhibit T.S. Eliot’s tendency toward obscure imagery and severe language.  However, the change in his writing approach affected his structural arrangement; instead of the piecewise approach of his earlier work, he began to use composition that is more peaceful.  In this way he communicates his shift in perspective from viewing the world as a splintered and anxiety-prone to ordered and designed.  His poems also exhibited a stronger, more optimistic sense of resolution.  While he still recognized the difficulties of life and the problems with the condition of man, he could now see and propose a solution.  The change exemplified by these poems is a powerful testament to both the renewing power of faith in Christ and to the literary skill of T.S. Eliot.

Reaction Paper: “The Road Not Taken”

Choices are the simultaneous blessing and curse of life, the source of both enormous joy and immense regret.  They are the forces that direct time during the journey from present to future.  A poem by Robert Frost, “The Road Not Taken,” is a contemplative look at the various perspectives surrounding these choices and consequences that result from the decision.  It is four stanzas of five lines each and it follows a strict form, utilizing an ABAAB rhyme scheme.  The meter is eight syllables to a line, in a stretched variety of iambic tetrameter.  However, the lyrical flow of the poem disguises this precise structure.  Because Frost extends his thoughts and phrases from line to line it creates a very relaxed feel when it is read.

In the poem, a traveler is reflecting on a recent decision that he has made as well as looking ahead in anticipation of his future reminiscences about the event.  He was faced with a choice between two apparently identical paths, neither of which had been used that day, and required to choose one while telling himself that he could always come back to the other.  Still, he does not expect to return, instead he contemplates how this decision will look, “…ages and ages hence…” and decides that he will remember his choice as taking the road less traveled.

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both

And be one traveler, long I stood

And looked down one as far as I could

To where it bent in the undergrowth;

This stanza brings about familiar emotions through evocative imagery and a relatable situation.  Frost’s choice to use the adjective “yellow” has a unique effect.  The color yellow is usually associated with cheerfulness or optimism; however, when used to describe the wood, it takes on a sickly feel.  The image described by the poem immediately becomes jaundiced, and a sense of distaste is detected in the traveler.

As I read this stanza, the familiarity of the situation immediately strikes me.  Being faced with two paths and equipped only with the knowledge that I could only choose one is frustrating.  The traveler’s pause to analyze the situation is completely understandable; I also try to “look ahead” whenever faced with a choice.  However, the disappearance of the path as it winds into the undergrowth often happens much too soon.  This image creates an unintentional allusion for me; I am reminded of Christian’s journey in Pilgrim’s Progress and of how he was often faced with an uncertain path.

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,

Because it was grassy and wanted wear;

Though as for that, the passing there

Had worn them really about the same,

Here, the crux of the decision’s difficulty is presented.  Neither path has any particular characteristics or qualities that would lend themselves to choosing one way or another.  They looked equally “fair” and the only distinction is that the second path seems to have slightly less wear from travelers.  This slight difference is emphasized as even more inconsequential by the fact that, when the speaker takes the path, it is then equally worn.

Again, this stanza presents a difficulty that I find relatable, being presented with a decision but feeling at a loss because of a lack of information.  Sometimes life comes to a fork, and a decision must be made.  Without knowing either the lasting benefits or consequences of either choice, the only recourse available is to look for signs of people who have gone before.  Sometimes, this results in a “grasping at straws” and placing more significance on minor details than they actually deserve.

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.

Oh, I kept the first for another day!

Yet knowing how way leads on to way,

I doubted if I should ever come back.

Unfortunately for the traveler, neither of the paths had any evidence of previous passage.  As in the last stanza, he was looking for any information that he could use to aid his decision or suggest a companion in his journey.  However, he made his choice, picking the second path, but telling himself that he could always return for the other path at some other time.  Yet, despite this alternative, he remorsefully admits to himself his uncertainty that it would ever occur.

Finding people who have had similar experiences to oneself is a comfort, especially if they can advise you about upcoming choices.  I know that the bond of similar experience can spark an immediate relationship.  The concept of “keeping options open” is another characteristic of this poem that I can relate to.  The idea that a choice being made does not have permanent consequences takes a load off my mind.  However, this relief is often a false sense of comfort because, as the speaker goes on to say, “…way leads on to way…” and this is all to true.  Life moves in one direction, and any attempt to return to a previous choice is much like trying to flatten a crumpled piece of paper, it will never quite be the same as it was.

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I –

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference.

Finally having chosen a road to take, the traveler begins to contemplate the future effects of his decision.  He recognizes that he will look back with a sigh, whether of regret over the decision or of yearning for the time of decision again depends on the difference that the choice makes, and attribute the results of his choice to the fact that he chose the road “…less traveled by…” despite the fact that the paths were essentially identical.

With this conclusion, I draw two separate lessons from the poem.  The first is applicable if the choice that was made truly had equivalent options.  Here, the speaker cynically assumes that he will regret his decision and will have to infuse a measure of heroism, taking the road less traveled, to reconcile his decision.  I see this as a warning not to be caught debating the menial decisions in life and worrying about future results that may not even occur.  The second relates to a decision that truly results in a dramatic variation in outcome.  In these cases, the poem can still serve as a warning.  Knowing that there is a possibility for a negative consequence, the choice should be surrendered to One who knows where each of the paths leads.  To avoid the regret of a hasty decision leading to unintended outcomes, the burden of the decision should be cast by faith upon the Lord who knows the best path in every situation.

Shifts in Literature: Realism

Time passes once and is gone, leaving no trace other than the memories of its events.  Yet these memories are but rude pictures of the actual occurrences, images filtered through the lens of individual perception.  This introduces the variable of perspective into the record of history.  Differences in perspective are not always detrimental; an additional viewpoint often reveals a lesson or truth that was previously hidden.

As time passed, and American history unfolded, the national culture was being shaped and molded.  On the forefront of these changes were the writers of American literature.  Writers such as Mark Twain, Henry James, Bret Harte, and Stephen Crane were not only embracing the shifts in culture but also driving it onward, directing the course of both literature and the nation.  These men lived through the trying times surrounding the Civil War and began to see life and their roles as writers differently than previous generations.  Their perspective on the human condition departed from the idealistic, sanguine view of romanticism and shifted toward the pragmatic, naturalistic interpretations of realism.  With these new ideas came new characters, vivid and gritty, and a renewed focus on the common man.  Gone were the fancifully contrived characters of romantic conceptions, replacing them were the unfeigned men and women whose existence appeared to extend beyond the page, intertwining itself with reality and drawing reality into the story with them.

Mark Twain, a giant influence in the literary shift, was very much a regionalist writer, drawing on the local color in his writing.  The excerpt from Roughing It known as “When the Buffalo Climbed a Tree” is a prime example of his use of eccentric characters in realistic situations for a humorous effect.  In the story, the narrator is listening to Bemis, one of his travel companions, recount his harrowing adventure with an angry buffalo bull.  The entire selection is primarily dialogue, mostly Bemis talking.  As he continues with his story, his tall tale is stretched to the very limit and beyond, concluding with the bull climbing a tree and being shot.  The narrator attempts to express his disbelief and finally reaches that the conclusion that if Bemis, “was not a liar he only missed it by the skin of his teeth.”

Twain’s use of dialect, as well as his inclusion of obvious exaggeration, creates a vivid scene in the mind of the reader.  The entire story is told through the description that Bemis weaves in his tale, and much unlike romantic literature, there is very little description apart from the dialogue.  A romantic author’s approach to this exact same tale would spend time describing the landscape, analyzing the characters’ thoughts, and, assuming that he would even touch a character as ridiculous as Bemis, soften him to make him more “civilized.”  The lack of a moral point to the story is also a departure from the romantic style.  Twain’s approach to writing comprehensively includes all of the details of the scene without filtering them for relevance to a central theme.  However, even though the narrative does not have a specific theme, it does have a purpose.  It creates a scene, populates it with a character, and engages the reader by allowing him to feel like he is present at the event.  Bemis is a very believable, though not trustworthy, individual, and he seems like a fascinating person to meet.  This sort of character development is a definite departure from the scrupulously designed characters of romantic literature.

The tale “The Real Thing” by Henry James is a great example of the genre of realism.  In it, James portrays two persons, the Monarchs, who have come to an artist to offer their services as models.  They are a gentleman and a lady, formerly from the upper class of life, who have come across a period of hard times and decided to seek modeling as a means of employment.  From their point of view, they would make much better models for the “upper class” characters in the illustrations because they would not have to feign the attitudes; they were the “real thing.”  However, despite their best efforts, their usefulness to the artist was limited and they would not suffice.  In the end, they offered to perform the duties of a servant, if only to remain employed.  However, the artist could not bear seeing them in such a condition and dismissed them.

James injects his readers into the scene from the very first sentence; the visitors are announced to the narrator and the audience simultaneously.  The first-person tone of narration through the story also keeps the audience engaged, as if the speaker is having a conversation with them.  However, even though the account is from the perspective of the painter, it is apparent that the story’s purpose is the Monarchs.  The style of realism is immediately apparent through the dialogue.  James captures the breath of the conversations, down to the awkward pauses and fleeting glances.  This preservation of miscommunication is a unique feature of the realism genre; romantic style authors would not lower their characters to such flaws.  Romantic authors would also not dare to allow the Monarch’s fate to have befallen them.  To the extent that the reader is allowed to see them, they do everything right, yet they suffer nonetheless.  Their persistence and humility is not rewarded; instead, they are dismissed from the studio and the story without ado.  This attitude of a lack of equity in life is the perspective that Henry James has about the human condition and it is similarly reflected through the character of the painter.  He is impressed by the Monarchs, but despite their desirable attributes, he, and life, simply cannot pause to accommodate them.

A sobering account of death is related in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by author Bret Harte.  The story traces the ill-fated party of outcasts from Poker Flat, who must learn to get along if they want to survive their trip to the next town.  Led by Mr. Oakhurst, they set out, but fatigue halts them, and an ill-timed snowstorm leaves them stranded miles from civilization.  The five outcasts, along with a young couple who happened across them, quickly are reduced to a party of six, as one roguish member of their group absconds with their mules.  After days of confinement and the death of one of the remaining outcasts, the young man from the couple is sent off to seek help.  His effort is in vain however, as the rescue party arriving a few days later finds the women frozen to death and Mr. Oakhurst dead from a self-inflicted bullet wound.

Bret Harte’s writing is an excellent example of a combination of realism and local color.  The gritty nature of this story is another illustration of a dramatic departure from the romantic approach to literature.  His portrayal of the group and of Poker Flat gives them the opposite characteristics that might be expected.  The town, which is attempting to clean itself up, is presented as the antagonist, and the group of outcasts is imbued with a type of heroism.  While the town did not go about its attempt at renewal in the best way possible, and the exiled group is not entirely innocent, this blurring of the lines between good and evil is evidence of the realistic perspective that Harte employs.  Particularly in the conclusion of the story, a sense of defeatism is pervasive.  Almost all of the characters die, and none of them achieve any sort of physical or even moral triumph.  Again, this is very different from the morality driven, romantic approach to literature.

“The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane is another example of the realistic perspective of the human condition in literature.  It is the account of four survivors of a sunken steamship battling the elements in a small lifeboat.  These men are the wounded captain, the cook, an oiler, and a correspondent.  They come within sight of land but are frustrated by their lack of ability to communicate with the people on the shore.  Eventually, after braving the ocean for several days, they attempt to break through the surf and swim for shore.  This attempt is only partially successful; because, of the four men, only three survive the trip to shore; the oiler is found dead in a pool of water.

The emphasis on death and human frailty is a characteristic of the realism movement, but what really sets it apart from the romantic perspective of the human condition is the additional inclusion of the haphazard nature of life.  The death of the oiler at the end of the story comes as a shock; of all the characters, the captain, not him, seemed most likely to die.  This indiscriminate killing by the sea highlights the vicissitudes of life; despite man’s best efforts, he is still subject to the whim of nature.

Each of these selections has a unique topic, and the actual writing styles are quite varied; however, there is a uniting characteristic.  They all demonstrate a departure from the romantic approach to literature, from the literal point of view to the attitude about the human condition.  Each of the authors pulls the reader from the omniscient point of view that is characteristic of romantic literature down to the level of a character, sharing only one character’s thoughts, and seeing events as they happen.  They all also display an increased awareness of the frailty of life and the weakness of man in the presence of the hardships of life.  The shift in literary focus, while distinctly changing the viewpoint of literature, embraces these new perspectives and presents new truths about life.