One early example of Eliot’s pre-conversion writing, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” is an exploration of the mind of a neurotic, indecisive, over thinking individual.  From the very beginning, the epigraph establishes a morbid tone, in essence swearing the reader to secrecy.  What the speaker is about to reveal through the poem should never be uttered to anyone else.  Then, he continues, describing a cityscape, placing emphasis on the “yellow fog” and “yellow smoke” that pervades the streets.  He looks at his life as a monotonous cycle, time passing with more to come, and he questions whether he has already experienced everything in life.  Filling this time are moments upon moments of indecision, continual doubting resulting in a paralysis of action.  Still, the repetition of certain lines, “In the room the women come and go/Talking of Michelangelo.” stresses the continuation of time despite his inaction.  The metaphor of the crab, the “ragged claws,” is a perfect parallel for his life; both can only travel sideways, never making forward progress.  Stylistically, the fragmentation of the poem serves to re-enforce the incongruity of thought that the words demonstrate.  The poem as a whole is a type of dramatic monologue, and the speaker is continually questioning himself.  He inquires whether he has the strength to take action, and anticipates his attempts failing to meet his desires.  In the end, his conclusion is one of surrender to what he sees as the inevitable.  He was not meant for high things, “No! I am not Prince Hamlet, not was meant to be; /Am an attendant lord, one that will do” and because of this he busies himself deciding what sort of insignificance he shall pursue.  This pointless endeavor carries him until he is old, but he will still not pursue any more.  The only realization that he achieves is that his life is like a sleep that has lasted too long and that he will finally “awake” to death.

“The Hollow Men” is another pre-conversion poem, and an equally good example of Eliot’s pessimism regarding mankind.  He uses that poem as cynical and harsh appraisal of empty men.  The terms “hollow men” and “stuffed men” with “Headpieces filled with straw.” bluntly revile the subject of the poem.  Eliot’s inclusion of a series of paradoxical statements, each of which describe a form without substance, also emphasizes the void nature of the hollow men.  This poem also incorporates the religious, by viewing the hollow men from “death’s other Kingdom,” apparently a reference to Heaven.  However, the next reference seems to be an anti-Lord’s Prayer, “Let me be no nearer/ In death’s dream kingdom” which seems to blasphemously invert the line, “Thy Kingdom come.”  Eliot offers a glimpse of the Christian hope, but in the end he discards the idea as “The hope only/ Of empty men.” and instead offers the inane repetition of an altered nursery rhyme as a parallel to life.  Then he uses a trio of illustrations, all of which use couplets of very similar concepts, and places the “Shadow” in between all of them, putting the essence of evil in everything.  There are also the three lines aligned with the right margin, again seeming very liturgical, which are truncated to become the second-to-last stanza.  Then for a final thrust at the emptiness of these men and of life, Eliot concludes the poem with another nursery rhyme like stanza that pronounces that the end of the life of the hollow men without ado, only with a whimper.

An example of post-conversion writing is the Four Quartets, from which the poem “Little Gidding” is taken.  It clearly shows Eliot’s renewal through the optimistic outlook that stretches beyond the physical and visible world as well as through the positive resolution in the last section.  The poem is named after an Anglican monastery; the first section offers a description of a trip to the monastery where “prayer has been valid” as well as a depiction of prayer as the fiery language of the realm beyond the living.  This acknowledgement of existence and hope after death is a dramatic change in Eliot’s perspective.  The actual structure also relates a change; the language used is almost conversational in structure, a striking departure from the fragmented rambling of his pre-conversion writings.  In the second section, the speaker encounters a spectral version of himself who informs him that he must suffer the purifying fire if he wants to escape the curses of life.  This image of a purifying fire is drawn almost directly from Biblical passages (e.g. 1 Cor. 3:13), another indication of the influence that the Christian belief had on Eliot.  The image of fire returns in the fourth section where Eliot presents the difficult position of having to choose between two pyres, one of which represents the fire of hell and the other the purifying fire of love.  Continuing, the final section brings a resolution to the poem, speaking of a condition of complete simplicity that costs everything and uniting the images of the fire, representing cleansing, and of the rose, symbolizing mercy.  This description is a precise and powerful allegory for the salvation that God offers through faith in His redeeming work.

Both the pre- and post-conversion poems exhibit T.S. Eliot’s tendency toward obscure imagery and severe language.  However, the change in his writing approach affected his structural arrangement; instead of the piecewise approach of his earlier work, he began to use composition that is more peaceful.  In this way he communicates his shift in perspective from viewing the world as a splintered and anxiety-prone to ordered and designed.  His poems also exhibited a stronger, more optimistic sense of resolution.  While he still recognized the difficulties of life and the problems with the condition of man, he could now see and propose a solution.  The change exemplified by these poems is a powerful testament to both the renewing power of faith in Christ and to the literary skill of T.S. Eliot.

In the poem, a traveler is reflecting on a recent decision that he has made as well as looking ahead in anticipation of his future reminiscences about the event.  He was faced with a choice between two apparently identical paths, neither of which had been used that day, and required to choose one while telling himself that he could always come back to the other.  Still, he does not expect to return, instead he contemplates how this decision will look, “…ages and ages hence…” and decides that he will remember his choice as taking the road less traveled.

This stanza brings about familiar emotions through evocative imagery and a relatable situation.  Frost’s choice to use the adjective “yellow” has a unique effect.  The color yellow is usually associated with cheerfulness or optimism; however, when used to describe the wood, it takes on a sickly feel.  The image described by the poem immediately becomes jaundiced, and a sense of distaste is detected in the traveler.

As I read this stanza, the familiarity of the situation immediately strikes me.  Being faced with two paths and equipped only with the knowledge that I could only choose one is frustrating.  The traveler’s pause to analyze the situation is completely understandable; I also try to “look ahead” whenever faced with a choice.  However, the disappearance of the path as it winds into the undergrowth often happens much too soon.  This image creates an unintentional allusion for me; I am reminded of Christian’s journey in Pilgrim’s Progress and of how he was often faced with an uncertain path.

Here, the crux of the decision’s difficulty is presented.  Neither path has any particular characteristics or qualities that would lend themselves to choosing one way or another.  They looked equally “fair” and the only distinction is that the second path seems to have slightly less wear from travelers.  This slight difference is emphasized as even more inconsequential by the fact that, when the speaker takes the path, it is then equally worn.

Again, this stanza presents a difficulty that I find relatable, being presented with a decision but feeling at a loss because of a lack of information.  Sometimes life comes to a fork, and a decision must be made.  Without knowing either the lasting benefits or consequences of either choice, the only recourse available is to look for signs of people who have gone before.  Sometimes, this results in a “grasping at straws” and placing more significance on minor details than they actually deserve.

Unfortunately for the traveler, neither of the paths had any evidence of previous passage.  As in the last stanza, he was looking for any information that he could use to aid his decision or suggest a companion in his journey.  However, he made his choice, picking the second path, but telling himself that he could always return for the other path at some other time.  Yet, despite this alternative, he remorsefully admits to himself his uncertainty that it would ever occur.

Finding people who have had similar experiences to oneself is a comfort, especially if they can advise you about upcoming choices.  I know that the bond of similar experience can spark an immediate relationship.  The concept of “keeping options open” is another characteristic of this poem that I can relate to.  The idea that a choice being made does not have permanent consequences takes a load off my mind.  However, this relief is often a false sense of comfort because, as the speaker goes on to say, “…way leads on to way…” and this is all to true.  Life moves in one direction, and any attempt to return to a previous choice is much like trying to flatten a crumpled piece of paper, it will never quite be the same as it was.

Finally having chosen a road to take, the traveler begins to contemplate the future effects of his decision.  He recognizes that he will look back with a sigh, whether of regret over the decision or of yearning for the time of decision again depends on the difference that the choice makes, and attribute the results of his choice to the fact that he chose the road “…less traveled by…” despite the fact that the paths were essentially identical.

With this conclusion, I draw two separate lessons from the poem.  The first is applicable if the choice that was made truly had equivalent options.  Here, the speaker cynically assumes that he will regret his decision and will have to infuse a measure of heroism, taking the road less traveled, to reconcile his decision.  I see this as a warning not to be caught debating the menial decisions in life and worrying about future results that may not even occur.  The second relates to a decision that truly results in a dramatic variation in outcome.  In these cases, the poem can still serve as a warning.  Knowing that there is a possibility for a negative consequence, the choice should be surrendered to One who knows where each of the paths leads.  To avoid the regret of a hasty decision leading to unintended outcomes, the burden of the decision should be cast by faith upon the Lord who knows the best path in every situation.

As time passed, and American history unfolded, the national culture was being shaped and molded.  On the forefront of these changes were the writers of American literature.  Writers such as Mark Twain, Henry James, Bret Harte, and Stephen Crane were not only embracing the shifts in culture but also driving it onward, directing the course of both literature and the nation.  These men lived through the trying times surrounding the Civil War and began to see life and their roles as writers differently than previous generations.  Their perspective on the human condition departed from the idealistic, sanguine view of romanticism and shifted toward the pragmatic, naturalistic interpretations of realism.  With these new ideas came new characters, vivid and gritty, and a renewed focus on the common man.  Gone were the fancifully contrived characters of romantic conceptions, replacing them were the unfeigned men and women whose existence appeared to extend beyond the page, intertwining itself with reality and drawing reality into the story with them.

Mark Twain, a giant influence in the literary shift, was very much a regionalist writer, drawing on the local color in his writing.  The excerpt from Roughing It known as “When the Buffalo Climbed a Tree” is a prime example of his use of eccentric characters in realistic situations for a humorous effect.  In the story, the narrator is listening to Bemis, one of his travel companions, recount his harrowing adventure with an angry buffalo bull.  The entire selection is primarily dialogue, mostly Bemis talking.  As he continues with his story, his tall tale is stretched to the very limit and beyond, concluding with the bull climbing a tree and being shot.  The narrator attempts to express his disbelief and finally reaches that the conclusion that if Bemis, “was not a liar he only missed it by the skin of his teeth.”

Twain’s use of dialect, as well as his inclusion of obvious exaggeration, creates a vivid scene in the mind of the reader.  The entire story is told through the description that Bemis weaves in his tale, and much unlike romantic literature, there is very little description apart from the dialogue.  A romantic author’s approach to this exact same tale would spend time describing the landscape, analyzing the characters’ thoughts, and, assuming that he would even touch a character as ridiculous as Bemis, soften him to make him more “civilized.”  The lack of a moral point to the story is also a departure from the romantic style.  Twain’s approach to writing comprehensively includes all of the details of the scene without filtering them for relevance to a central theme.  However, even though the narrative does not have a specific theme, it does have a purpose.  It creates a scene, populates it with a character, and engages the reader by allowing him to feel like he is present at the event.  Bemis is a very believable, though not trustworthy, individual, and he seems like a fascinating person to meet.  This sort of character development is a definite departure from the scrupulously designed characters of romantic literature.

The tale “The Real Thing” by Henry James is a great example of the genre of realism.  In it, James portrays two persons, the Monarchs, who have come to an artist to offer their services as models.  They are a gentleman and a lady, formerly from the upper class of life, who have come across a period of hard times and decided to seek modeling as a means of employment.  From their point of view, they would make much better models for the “upper class” characters in the illustrations because they would not have to feign the attitudes; they were the “real thing.”  However, despite their best efforts, their usefulness to the artist was limited and they would not suffice.  In the end, they offered to perform the duties of a servant, if only to remain employed.  However, the artist could not bear seeing them in such a condition and dismissed them.

James injects his readers into the scene from the very first sentence; the visitors are announced to the narrator and the audience simultaneously.  The first-person tone of narration through the story also keeps the audience engaged, as if the speaker is having a conversation with them.  However, even though the account is from the perspective of the painter, it is apparent that the story’s purpose is the Monarchs.  The style of realism is immediately apparent through the dialogue.  James captures the breath of the conversations, down to the awkward pauses and fleeting glances.  This preservation of miscommunication is a unique feature of the realism genre; romantic style authors would not lower their characters to such flaws.  Romantic authors would also not dare to allow the Monarch’s fate to have befallen them.  To the extent that the reader is allowed to see them, they do everything right, yet they suffer nonetheless.  Their persistence and humility is not rewarded; instead, they are dismissed from the studio and the story without ado.  This attitude of a lack of equity in life is the perspective that Henry James has about the human condition and it is similarly reflected through the character of the painter.  He is impressed by the Monarchs, but despite their desirable attributes, he, and life, simply cannot pause to accommodate them.

A sobering account of death is related in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by author Bret Harte.  The story traces the ill-fated party of outcasts from Poker Flat, who must learn to get along if they want to survive their trip to the next town.  Led by Mr. Oakhurst, they set out, but fatigue halts them, and an ill-timed snowstorm leaves them stranded miles from civilization.  The five outcasts, along with a young couple who happened across them, quickly are reduced to a party of six, as one roguish member of their group absconds with their mules.  After days of confinement and the death of one of the remaining outcasts, the young man from the couple is sent off to seek help.  His effort is in vain however, as the rescue party arriving a few days later finds the women frozen to death and Mr. Oakhurst dead from a self-inflicted bullet wound.

Bret Harte’s writing is an excellent example of a combination of realism and local color.  The gritty nature of this story is another illustration of a dramatic departure from the romantic approach to literature.  His portrayal of the group and of Poker Flat gives them the opposite characteristics that might be expected.  The town, which is attempting to clean itself up, is presented as the antagonist, and the group of outcasts is imbued with a type of heroism.  While the town did not go about its attempt at renewal in the best way possible, and the exiled group is not entirely innocent, this blurring of the lines between good and evil is evidence of the realistic perspective that Harte employs.  Particularly in the conclusion of the story, a sense of defeatism is pervasive.  Almost all of the characters die, and none of them achieve any sort of physical or even moral triumph.  Again, this is very different from the morality driven, romantic approach to literature.

“The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane is another example of the realistic perspective of the human condition in literature.  It is the account of four survivors of a sunken steamship battling the elements in a small lifeboat.  These men are the wounded captain, the cook, an oiler, and a correspondent.  They come within sight of land but are frustrated by their lack of ability to communicate with the people on the shore.  Eventually, after braving the ocean for several days, they attempt to break through the surf and swim for shore.  This attempt is only partially successful; because, of the four men, only three survive the trip to shore; the oiler is found dead in a pool of water.

The emphasis on death and human frailty is a characteristic of the realism movement, but what really sets it apart from the romantic perspective of the human condition is the additional inclusion of the haphazard nature of life.  The death of the oiler at the end of the story comes as a shock; of all the characters, the captain, not him, seemed most likely to die.  This indiscriminate killing by the sea highlights the vicissitudes of life; despite man’s best efforts, he is still subject to the whim of nature.

Each of these selections has a unique topic, and the actual writing styles are quite varied; however, there is a uniting characteristic.  They all demonstrate a departure from the romantic approach to literature, from the literal point of view to the attitude about the human condition.  Each of the authors pulls the reader from the omniscient point of view that is characteristic of romantic literature down to the level of a character, sharing only one character’s thoughts, and seeing events as they happen.  They all also display an increased awareness of the frailty of life and the weakness of man in the presence of the hardships of life.  The shift in literary focus, while distinctly changing the viewpoint of literature, embraces these new perspectives and presents new truths about life.

The House of Seven Gables illustrates these different consequences of guilt through the lives of the characters.  Each one is presented with some form of guilt.  Some feel the guilt because of some action in their past, others are haunted by a family sin with a sense of ancestral guilt, and one is affected simply because of her association with other characters who are dealing with guilt.  Along with being faced with the guilt, the characters have to deal with their present situations, the daily toils of life as well as interacting with each other.  This presents them with constant opportunity to act on their guilt, and, much in the same way that they each face a different form of guilt, they each choose a different course in dealing with it.  This choice that they are given is to either move past their guilt and find their life renewed or allow themselves to continue being victims of its torment.

The first character to which the reader is introduced is the nearsighted Hepzibah Pyncheon, resident of the House of Seven Gables and one of the last vestiges of the formerly illustrious Pyncheon family.  She lives on for the sake of her brother, sacrificing what she sees as her proper role as a gentlewoman for the sake of providing for him (Platizky).  However, her biggest antagonists are the sour impression her squinting visage leaves on people and the persistent oppression of the guilty atmosphere in the house.  This attitude of constant remorse is not one over an action that she herself took.  It is more a regretful attitude for not doing more to aid her brother in his time of need.  There was not necessarily anything more that she could have actually done, yet she allows herself to believe this because it induces empathy within her.  It gives her a feeling of connection with her brother’s struggles by attempting to live through them herself.

This guilt affects her life in many different fashions.  The most evident symptom of this is her reclusive lifestyle of the thirty years prior to opening her cent shop.  These thirty years are the same thirty through which her brother has been absent from her life, and had it not been out of dire monetary need and the desire to provide for her brother, she may have remained a recluse the remainder of her life.  This withdrawal from society was hastened by her scowling appearance.  The continual narrowing of her eyes to see permanently impressed a warped countenance on her features, causing people to view her as an unfriendly individual.  Coupled with her natural inclination to set herself apart from society, this made her efforts to fill the role as shopkeeper all the more difficult.  In a parallel manner, the continual narrowing of her perspective by her feeling of guilt imprinted a similarly distorted mental viewpoint.  Over the thirty years, her outlook on life was dimmed until it became a singularly dismal existence.  Her one spot of hope is to bring joy and comfort to her brother as he returns home; however, with her tired appearance, she finds herself unable to lift the melancholy that has encompassed him (Three Women in The House of the Seven Gables: Hepzibah).

Hepzibah’s work to maintain the house and provide for her brother’s well-being might have proved fruitless had she not begun to move beyond her guilt.  The first evidence of her progress is her opening the cent shop.  For her, this was a remarkable act of humility and an early step toward a recovery that she had needed for thirty years.  Her initial reaction when her niece arrives is a combination of her old nature resisting the change and a protective spirit for her brother, but when she observes the positive effect that her niece has, she begins to consent to her presence and eventually becomes quite fond of her presence.  As time goes on, Hepzibah begins to experience the same revitalization of life as her brother.  She finds the strength to release the oppression of the past and moves on into a newfound freedom.

Clifford, Hepzibah’s brother, had a sense of ancestral guilt similar to that of his sister.  Prior to his unjust imprisonment, Clifford was a pleasure-loving individual, described even as a sybarite.  Even the hardship that he went through could not extinguish this nature within him, though it did greatly suppress it (Idol Jr.).  However, what did take the greatest toll on his love of life and appreciation for the finer things was his belief that the curse of Matthew Maule on his ancestor was responsible for his misfortune.  He considered the old Colonel Pyncheon to be the “evil genius” behind the struggles that he had experienced.  Instead, what was oppressing him the most was his inability to release the guilt over actions that had occurred many decades earlier.

The effects of this guilt are extremely apparent in both Clifford’s physical health and mental state.  The thirty years imprisonment caused an expected decreased in physical capacity simply because of his advancement in age; however, this depreciation is accentuated because of the anguish that he experienced.  While in jail, his only occupation was to remember the injustice of his imprisonment and visualize the events of his ancestor’s sin.  This daily reflection gradually wore away at his strength and destroyed his gentle spirit.  Even after returning home, he lives each day still imprisoned by his guilt.  His listless attitude makes him seem oblivious to many of Hepzibah’s attempts to make him comfortable.  All of the torment that he had experienced left his mind in an uneasy condition.  Clifford also begins to affect his sister and niece, infecting them with his crippling disease of guilt.  Even the buoyant optimism of his niece begins to wane under his depressing influence.

The path that Clifford was taking would have most likely led to his death if he had continued in it too long.  His depression was not improving in any great manner; it is questionable whether he was improving at all.  However, Clifford’s antagonist, Judge Jaffrey Pyncheon, persists in disturbing him.  This constant badgering abrades on Clifford, causing his fear of the Judge to grow from a strong anxiety to a horrified terror.  The Judge’s belief that he has knowledge of the secret to vast landholdings causes him to continue provoking Clifford despite the obvious suffering that he is inflicting.  At the climactic point in the novel, Clifford finally tires of the domineering and stands up to the Judge.  This act is not only an outward demonstration of overcoming his fear, but it is also a representation of the inner change and triumph over his sense of guilt.  He finally views his oppression as a situation in the present that he can deal with instead of attributing it to retribution for ancestral guilt.  Clifford’s victory over the guilt that had controlled him for so long demonstrates the physical power that it had held over him.  In his frailty, Clifford was in no condition for a physical struggle.  The vanquishing of his enemies was purely a mental triumph.  However, following the release, he was imbued with a sudden strength and overflow of energy.  All of the life that had been suppressed by his guilt was finally allowed to emerge and launch him into a new life of freedom and hope.

The ominous personage of Judge Jaffrey Pyncheon is the physical materialization of the malevolent force that oppresses Hepzibah and Clifford (Baym).  Even though the judge is as much a member of the Pyncheon family as his cousins Hepzibah and Clifford, he lived his life trying to stay outside of the “family curse.”  However, despite all of his attempts to hide his past, he cannot escape the sins of his younger days.  Based purely on outward appearance, the judge would appear to have achieved everything he could have wanted, but his grasping nature, which is what led to his previous sin, drove him to act beyond what was prudent.

The outward appearance of the Judge’s guilt was not apparent until it climaxed with his death during his confrontation with Clifford.  His continual suppression of the guilt from his past allowed him to present a façade that fooled the majority of the public.  This allowed him to become a respected member of the community, even rising to the extremely prestigious position of judge.  Nevertheless, he was still locked in battle with the unreleased guilt of his past.  The battle with the guilt consisted of an attempt to distance himself from the ancestral guilt associated with his family as well as the knowledge that he had bought his position in life at the expense of thirty years of his cousin’s life.  Inwardly, he was able to suppress this feeling during the thirty years of Clifford’s imprisonment, but once he was released, the Judge was confronted with the same guilt that had led to his original deception.  He could not allow Clifford to live in peace, as this was a constant reminder of both his guilt and what he could not have.

Judge Pyncheon’s denial of his guilt only held back the symptoms of their existence, allowing them to build up to a deadly level within him.  The guilt festered within him, disconnecting him from life just as he was trying to unite himself with society.  His overburdened conscience, which he had long become numb to, was ready to burst.  The seeming resurrection of his guilt in Clifford’s release pushed him to take action.  Unwisely, he decided to pressure Clifford and Hepzibah, viewing them as only small impediments, but necessary ones, to deal with.  His downfall came in the form of a heredity genetic weakness.  Under the extreme mental stress and excitement, his body capitulated and resulted in his death.  In a sense, the “family curse” came into a full circle with his decease.  It had begun its reign of torment with the death of a man very similar to the Judge.  Colonel Pyncheon had used the repression of Matthew Maule to advance his own cause, and the weight that this action had on his conscience was one of the primary causes of his death.  In a parallel fashion, the Judge had oppressed Clifford and this came back to haunt him.  Again, this led to death, thus killing off the last oppressor of the Pyncheon line.

Holgrave appears as a vaguely mysterious character, representing a new generation of people associated with the House of Seven Gables.  He is faced with the same questions about guilt that have been confronting Hepzibah, Clifford, and the Judge for the past thirty years.  As a descendent of the infamous Mathew Maule, Holgrave is faced with as much ancestral guilt as any of the Pyncheons.  Particularly because of Matthew Maule the younger, who bewitched Alice Pyncheon, Holgrave has deep connections with the house and a great interest in what becomes of the line of the Pyncheons.

The guilt that Holgrave feels is not a fraction as strong as that over the three previous characters.  However, this is partly because of his youth and primarily because of his approach to the guilt.  He continues to move from occupation to occupation, always trying to stay current and mobile.  This is a demonstration of the inner battle that he is waging versus his guilt.  As long as he has not been able to reconcile his guilt and set it behind him, he is not able to settle in a location physically.  He continues to move, continually running, almost as if the guilt is chasing him and will capture him if he stops.  When Holgrave encounters Hepzibah’s niece, he is faced with the exact temptation that had confronted his ancestor, Matthew Maule, in the form of Alice Pyncheon.  However, he does not attempt the same revenge on the Pyncheons that his precursor had.  Instead, Holgrave sees Phoebe as a kindred soul, and he uses his conversations with her to ground his inner exploration of guilt.

In his response to guilt, Holgrave does not try to either suppress it or ignore it.  If he was not careful, he could have spent his life like the Judge, forever hiding his feelings within himself and never finding resolution to his struggles.  Holgrave instead faces his struggles with guilt and eventually releases them.  His observation of the events in the house could have easily been out of malice and with evil intent.  Instead, because he forgives himself, he is able to receive the forgiveness from others.  Through him and Phoebe, the Maule and Pyncheon lines are reconciled and the legendary curse is finally put to rest (Goddu).

Of all the characters, Phoebe Pyncheon is the least affected by the oppressive guilt that is associated with the house.  She brings an attitude of innocence and a spirit of hope to the story.  From the moment she steps into the house, there is a shift in attitude, an upward turn of events that foreshadows a complete recovery.  Similar to Holgrave, she is a representation of a new generation of people, and she is faced with the generations of guilt that have been entangled in the events of the house.  However, her choice is whether to accept the past and try to move on to the future or to isolate herself from the history that is oppressing her relatives.

Phoebe’s effect on the other characters is invaluable in aiding their recovery.  Without her, the life in the house would have been stifled at best.  She acts as an overflowing conduit of hope, continually refreshing Hepzibah and Clifford and inspiring Holgrave.  In doing this, some of the weight of guilt is transferred onto her shoulders.  This weight dampens her spirits ever so slightly, even causing her to leave the house for a time, but the burdens that she bears by association allow her to grow.  Her natural innocence is stretched, removing the naivety and replacing it with a discerning spirit.

Despite the bleak attitudes that so often surrounded her, Phoebe was able to remain strong.  She shows the other characters the freedom that they can obtain if they only would be willing to release their guilt.  In the end, Phoebe’s choice to remain in the house reaped positive results for both her and the other inhabitants.  Not only was she able to rescue her aunt and uncle from a life of repression and moral debt, but she was also able to establish a new life for herself with Holgrave (Anthony).

The overarching themes of guilt in the book bring out two major themes regarding guilt.  All of the characters encounter guilt in some form, whether from their own past or from another character’s past.  In every case, the guilt has a repressing effect on their lives.  Sometimes this effect is not obviously visible outwardly because the character is attempting to suppress it, but with enough time, its effect is always felt.  Guilt is a natural component of life, it is a natural reaction; however, living with the guilt is not natural and is severely detrimental.  Additionally, there is always the hope for recovery if the guilt is released.  Even when the guilt has been a part of life for many years, as it had for Clifford, there is the promise of renewal if it is released.  The reaction to the guilt is the deciding factor regarding recovery or degeneration.  Judge Pyncheon could not allow himself to release the events of the past and it cost him his life.  Hepzibah and Clifford were also victims of guilt’s coercive effects, but when they released their grip on the past, they were able to move on to a renewed life.  Holgrave and Phoebe faced the decision of whether to allow themselves to be controlled by the same guilt that had oppressed their families.  They rejected it, understanding what it was, and seeking reconciliation.  This allowed them to move forward uninhibited by the mistakes of a bygone era.

The sickness of unreleased guilt is a curse of living death.  Its power creates an inescapable feeling of dissatisfaction with the present because it causes a preoccupation with the past.  The only solution is to reconcile with the events of the past and begin living for the present.  By this refocusing on the future, the former entanglements with a departed time are escaped and the hope of a new life is begun.

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Platizky, Roger S. “HEPZIBAH’S GINGERBREAD CAKES IN THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN

GABLES.” American Notes & Queries 17.7 (1979): 106-109.

One facet of literature is its ability to preserve a culture and act as a written history.  Literature is the work of writing that outlasts both its author and even possibly its subject.  It has a timeless quality that reaches beyond the setting of the book.  The meaning of the book is not dependent on the technology of the day or on the current events of the time.  While the inclusion of these things does not prevent writing from being a timeless piece of literature, the dependence on them to convey its message does.  Literature also expresses the cultural values, or the desired values of the time.  Sometimes, this can be expressed through a commentary on contemporary issues.  An author can take a personal experience and present it in such a way that communicates his meaning, such as in autobiography, or use some external experience and record his interpretation of its significance.  Another form of literature is the fictional narrative, whether realistic or figurative.  These forms can convey a message that may not be simple to express using the current events.  An example of this is allegories, which use the surreal and fantastical to present a deeper message.

Another attribute of literature is its ability to bring the reader into contact with another set of experiences.  Literature brings the senses and emotions of distant locations, eras, or situations to life through the words on the page.  Authors can transport the reader to distant locations, vividly describing the smells and sounds, exposing them to the joys and dangers of the scene.  Literature can also transcend the limitations that time imposes and bring the ancient world within arm’s reach.  Likewise, literature brings the struggles of people from different stations in life into focus.  Readers can experience the hope, worries, and battles of a different class of people through the strength of literature.

Some of the earliest examples of writing in America fit this definition, making them the original American Literature.  Most of these early writings can be categorized into either a general history or a personal narrative.  One such example of early writing is John Smith’s The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles.  This multivolume work recounts the events of Jamestown and subsequent New World events from the perspective of John Smith.  His style of writing fits well within the category of a history despite his use of third person and lofty descriptions to report his personal achievements.  The tone of the book is one of a general feeling of condescension towards the Native Indians that Smith encounters, mostly because of his lack of understanding of their culture and customs.  Smith feels morally superior to the natives but also the desire to Christianize them and reform their “barbarous” lifestyles.  Though possibly an obligatory gesture, it was part of the motivation that Smith mentions for his exploration and interaction with the natives.  This book serves as an example of literature as a record of early events and John Smith’s perception of them.

Another example of early American writing is Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford.  This work is similar in purpose to John Smith’s account; both of them are histories of a settlement in the New World.  However, Bradford’s approach to writing reflects his difference in character.  He wrote simply, as a record of the events, without the glamour that Smith used to promote his actions.  Additionally, there is a marked difference in the treatment of encounters with the natives.  Smith always referred to them as “barbarians” and conveyed a sense of smug superiority.  In contrast, Bradford treated them with respect, even a sense of admiration.  At one point, during the account of a skirmish between the settlers and a party of Indians, Bradford recognizes the valiant behavior of one of the warriors.  Bradford’s book is another example of early literature as a history.  With it, he presents another attitude of exploration.

Anne Bradstreet is another early American writer who contributed to early American Literature.  Her poetry, while indirectly preserving the culture of the time, draws a picture of her character and allows the reader to “meet” her.  The poems were not written with the intent to serve as a historical record, in fact, they were not even written with the intention of being published, but were simply meant to be a legacy for Anne’s family.  However, the simple honesty of the poems creates a window into the Puritan community in the New World.  The captured emotions of “To My Dear and Loving Husband” and “Upon the Burning of Our House” allow the reader to relive the moments alongside her.

Another poet of early America and a contemporary of Anne Bradstreet is Edward Taylor.  His poetry, like Bradstreet’s, was not intended for publication.  It was for his personal reflection and meditation.  However, the quality of the writing and the spiritual lessons that are present in it makes it an important addition to literature.  Taylor’s contemplation in his poem “Meditation 8, First Series” is not only insightful, but also a very lively and vivid work.  His ability to bring about deeper thought and capture the reader with his imagery gives his writing a place among American Literature.

William Byrd’s writing returns more to the historical purpose of literature.  In the selection “Indian Neighbors” from The History of the Dividing Line, he records the content of a discussion that he had with one of his Indian guides.  His narrative and commentary on the discussion is presented honestly and he gives gracious treatment of the Indian’s religion.  His style of writing, along with his purpose, varies from both John Smith’s and William Bradford’s accounts.  Byrd was intending to present a culture other than his own and to do so he uses a journalistic approach for his record.

Jonathan Edwards exemplifies another style of writing.  His sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” is a premier example of logic used in a persuasive essay.  Edwards’s purpose in writing is to directly influence the reader, and, in the case of this sermon, convince them of their perilous position before God.  However, all of Edwards’s writing is extremely orderly.  Even his personal narrative reflects his systematic philosophical approach to life and walks the reader along with his train of thought.  His outstanding ability to present issues and methodically disprove all positions apart from his own gives his writing a place in American Literature.

“Letters from an American Farmer” by St. Jean de Crèvecœur is another piece of writing that serves to preserve the culture of the time by admiring the American way of life.  Similar to William Byrd’s account, Crèvecœur’s writing is very much a narrative style.  The unique position of Crèvecœur as a Frenchman living in America gives him a distinctive perspective.  This is displayed in his writing as he describes the ideals of America.  He presents man as naturally good and believes that, when given freedom, man will improve both himself and his surroundings.

Literature encompasses a wide range of writing, including many different styles and intents.  There are persuasive essays, poetry collections, and historical narratives.  All of them have their own point, and address a certain aspect of life in their time.  Nevertheless, the writing is still relevant today because each offers a distinctive perspective to the modern reader.  In each work, there is a timeless quality and a message that is not limited by time.

and desperately sick;

who can understand it?”

– Jeremiah 17:9

The study of man’s mind is a fascinating pursuit, despite the daunting impossibility of the task.  The depths to which a man’s mind and soul can be understood are simply a scratch on the surface of the total.  However, this examination is the objective of many works of literature and in some sense is present in almost all of literature.  One particular manifestation of this search is in many authors’ depictions of evil.  This topic is one of unique interest for certain authors, some of which are Edgar Allen Poe, Nathanial Hawthorne, and Herman Melville.  Nevertheless, despite their similar focus, their individual presentations of evil include a large variety of means.  They range from exploring the covert nature of the internal evil within the human heart to the overt, overarching effect of evil in the natural world.  All of them do address the effect of evil and its consequences in the offender’s life.  Likewise, they all present quite a different view of human nature than that of the transcendental movement.

In The Fall of the House of Usher, Poe presents evil with the capacity to invade the material world, not merely in a metaphoric sense, but physically, with dramatically detrimental effects.  As the narrator of the story approaches the house, there is an overwhelming sense of gloom permeating the atmosphere.  Poe, without explicitly stating it, gives the house an innate sense of malevolence, almost as if it is emanating from the structure itself.  Roderick Usher is the victim of this saturation of evil and it has begun to manifest itself within him as debilitating fear.  This fear is what initially caused him to call his friend, what prevented him from speaking up when he realized that he had buried his sister alive, and what ultimately led to his death.  This fear is caused in part by the acute sensitivity of his senses; however, the underlying cause seems to be guilt over some unstated sin.  It begins to drive the joy out of every activity.  Even as the narrative proceeds, his mental state deteriorates and with it his tolerance for the activities of daily life.  This decline of health reaches its depth after the death and burial of his sister.  As the awareness of his error comes into his consciousness and he realizes his mistake of burying her alive, his final plummet begins.  The gnawing guilt grips Usher’s heart, affecting him with severe results, but despite this, he remains silent and refuses to address his fear.  He instead turns inward, retreating within himself, and allows the evil to control his entire being.  Eventually, the narrator himself is afflicted by the oppressive atmosphere and succumbs to similar, though not as pronounced, symptoms.  In harsh contrast with the transcendental views of self-reliance and nature as the answers for personal victory, these two men find respite in neither of these places.  Usher makes the grievous mistake of attempting to rely purely on himself.  His invitation for the narrator to visit is the only attempt he makes to employ outside help.  Other than that gesture, he is withdrawn and seems to look only inward.  The surrounding environment does not bring any more relief.  The very furnishings of the house begin to reflect the depressed mood within the house.  Likewise, on the final night of the House of Usher, the weather too proves to be an ominous harbinger of the night’s events.

Nathanial Hawthorne describes the effects of evil in a different manner but with some very similar themes.  His primary focus is the effects of guilt on the conscience and its effects on interacting with society.  In Young Goodman Brown, the guilt creates an attitude of suspicion in the character Goodman Brown.  He allows himself to be drawn to the temptation, convinced that it will be the last time, and with each step tries to turn back.  The evil influence is presented as a grave man who carries with him a symbolically twisted walking stick.  After following along with this person for a ways, Goodman Brown resolves to go no further and parts ways with his companion.  At this point the story begins mingling reality with the imaginative fancies of Goodman Brown and the exact events of the night are not clear.  The effects of them, however, are dramatic and lifelong.  Because of his dream, in which he encounters the evil in every person that he knows, he then regards them each with suspicion.  From the minister to his own wife, he cannot see past his distrust.  The distrust caused by his own sin remains with him, preventing him from ever again seeing others in the same way.  During his night in the woods, he lost his faith in himself and, in turn, his faith in others.  Similar to Poe’s story, the evil that is present is manifested in the physical world as symbols and foreshadowing.  This is seen primarily in the elder man who leads Goodman Brown into the woods at the beginning of the tale.  Again, transcendental views are contradicted throughout the story but primarily in the lack of faith in man’s deepest natures.  Goodman Brown encounters evil that night and, from that time on, is reminded of it through every person that he sees.

The Minister’s Black Veil is another exploration of the effects of guilt in the human heart.  Mr. Hooper, becoming acutely aware of his sin, determines to wear a black veil as an outward demonstration of the deception in his heart.  For this decision, he is made a social outcast even while maintaining his position as the village parson.  However, he does not view the veil as a burden that he must suffer.  Instead, he sees it as bringing truth to his life by being honest about his depravity.  The opaque veil, while blocking his face from view, acts as a transparency to his heart and a revealing of the separation that exists between all people.  The minister maintained his vigilance throughout his life and even in death did not allow the veil to be removed.  His intention was a noble one, that being to make his parishioners conscious of their own veiled sins, and did effect changes in the people whom he encountered.  Nevertheless, his obsession with the hidden sins of men had its consequences in his life.  The most evident of these consequences was his separation from society.  This was in part because of the people’s dread but also partly the responsibility of Parson Hooper as typified by his dying quote, “I look around me, and lo! on every visage a Black Veil!”  The premise of this narrative is one of skepticism about man’s goodness as well as a cynical view of human nature.

Hawthorne’s recurrent theme of guilt and withdrawal from humanity is presented again in his story Ethan Brand.  In this account, Ethan Brand has completed his search for the Unpardonable Sin and returns to his hometown as a conclusion.  However, with his quest finished and his heart hardened by his study, he has nothing further to do with life and ends his by casting himself into a lime-kiln.  His pursuit had ruined him as a man by requiring that he disregard all love and reverence for the human soul and resort instead to cold philosophical curiosity.  The final result was a separation of his intellect from his heart for he came to realize that the sin which he sought, the Unpardonable Sin, was the sin of his search.  His victory was one of internal defeat and of infinite spiritual loss.  The product of his search was absolute disregard for the brotherhood of humanity and reverence for God.  This intimate knowledge of one’s own soul, which is the epitome of the transcendental search, did not result in peace for Ethan Brand.  Instead, it robbed him of his purpose for living by isolating him from society and un-shielding his own depravity.

Another example of the consequences that result from withdrawal from society is given in Melville’s Bartleby the Scrivener.  Bartleby becomes a sad picture of unmitigated hopelessness and lack of objective resulting from isolation.  His separation is not one that is forced upon him by situations beyond his control.  It is self inflicted and carefully maintained.  Each effort of the narrator to establish a rapport with Bartleby is met with seeming insubordination and an utter lack of effort on the part of Bartleby.  The distance at which Bartleby keeps himself from interaction is emphasized all the more when he both refuses to work or leave the premises, yet this also acts as a way of humanizing him.  He does not desire to be completely secluded from humanity; instead, he simply cannot bring himself to interact with them in a sufficient manner to obviate this seclusion.  As the narrator discovers at the end of the story, Bartleby formerly worked as a dead letter clerk.  This daily contact with depression and bleakness took its toll on his disposition until he could no longer release it.  Unlike the transcendental desire to improve personally by removing dependence on society, his lack of interaction with people did not foster a growth of an independent spirit within him.  Conversely, he lost all initiative, resorting to an absolute dependence on his employer and finally dying alone and without purpose.

These different representations of evil all address its effects on man and interaction with society.  Each one, in its own way, presents an opposing view to transcendental outlook.  None of them portrays any form of benefit from adherence to transcendental beliefs.  The selections repudiate the beliefs in all ways from showing evil in nature to emphasizing the evil that is naturally in man.  Instead, evil results in severe consequences that have far-reaching effects within a man’s soul that can last for an entire lifetime.

To transform itself to life.

We forget to live.

Often in this place there is a murky glimmer, a faded memory of what once was sunlight.  This prison isn’t strong enough to keep the light out.  But that’s what keeps me in.

The faint light reveals so much to me.  I know my way around my cell, from hours of patient study I have been able to focus my eyes and see every corner of this dingy room.  Not so much a room, more like a hole in the ground.  A soggy, filth-ridden hole that hasn’t collapsed from the erosion around it.  Hasn’t collapsed yet.

I’ve seen where the light comes from.  I know which way to go if I want to attempt an escape.  But the weight of apathy holds me back.  I’ve been here long enough, what would one more day matter?

But the darkness grows…

Every time I wake, I expect new life, light, and freedom.  But in here, each day only grows dimmer.  The darkness is slowly growing, capturing one inch at a time.  One more inch that I’ll never see again.  It has a mesmerizing allure, the darkness.  It moves peacefully, almost mocking the rapidity of light.  Yet I still fear it overtaking me, covering me completely.  Each night I sleep fitfully.

While the darkness grows…

I am resolved to make my way out of this place.  I scrape toward the light, grasping and dragging myself towards it.  Gasping, I reach out once again find nothing.  I stretch out further, still nothing.  I strain to pull myself upward, struggling, I look up and find myself… free. Majestic skies, fresh air, and glorious, unhindered light!  I stride off, reveling in my new found freedom.  Life is new, I have all to live for, my old life I have left – behind me

The darkness grows…

Watching.

Pondering what I see.

Regretting what I don’t.

From the beach, I stare out at the sea. It’s the season for boating; many dot the water’s surface. The upward reaching masts disclose their presence.

The silhouettes of the masts glint in the evening sun, another day is ending. Occasionally the masts seem to touch, some only for a moment, some for more. A beautiful sight, yet haunting.

I am not the only form occupying this beach. Off to the south is my boat, a prized and valuable possession. It is unused, a tragic symbol of my captivity. I try to keep it in good repair, but it hasn’t been tested.

I spend too many nights here on the shore, contemplating the ocean. The rippling waves tempt me. Each time, they lap at my feet, attempting to persuade me to abandon all and plunge in.

I see too clearly what could go wrong. I’ve seen enough mishaps to know what can happen when not enough care is taken.

Life must be centered..
Purpose.. to take opportunities…
To remember..
To value..
To live..

Maranatha